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Contents Preface v Foreword to the second edition xiii About the accompanying CD-ROM xiv On the bibliography, Internet sources and exercises xv Contents xvii PART A: THE ISSUES 1 Chapter 1: Software quality 3 1.1 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FACTORS 3 1.2 A REVIEW OF EXTERNAL FACTORS 4 1.3 ABOUT SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE 17 1.4 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 19 1.5 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 19 Chapter 2: Criteria of object orientation 21 2.1 ON THE CRITERIA 21 2.2 METHOD AND LANGUAGE 22 2.3 IMPLEMENTATION AND ENVIRONMENT 31 2.4 LIBRARIES 33 2.5 FOR MORE SNEAK PREVIEW 34 2.6 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES AND OBJECT RESOURCES 34 PART B: THE ROAD TO OBJECT ORIENTATION 37 Chapter 3: Modularity 39 3.1 FIVE CRITERIA 40 3.2 FIVE RULES 46 3.3 FIVE PRINCIPLES 53 3.4 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 64 3.5 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 64 EXERCISES 65CONTENTS xviii Chapter 4: Approaches to reusability 67 4.1 THE GOALS OF REUSABILITY 68 4.2 WHAT SHOULD WE REUSE? 70 4.3 REPETITION IN SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 74 4.4 NON-TECHNICAL OBSTACLES 74 4.5 THE TECHNICAL PROBLEM 81 4.6 FIVE REQUIREMENTS ON MODULE STRUCTURES 83 4.7 TRADITIONAL MODULAR STRUCTURES 89 4.8 OVERLOADING AND GENERICITY 93 4.9 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 98 4.10 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 99 Chapter 5: Towards object technology 101 5.1 THE INGREDIENTS OF COMPUTATION 101 5.2 FUNCTIONAL DECOMPOSITION 103 5.3 OBJECT-BASED DECOMPOSITION 114 5.4 OBJECT-ORIENTED SOFTWARE CONSTRUCTION 116 5.5 ISSUES 117 5.6 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 119 5.7 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 119 Chapter 6: Abstract data types 121 6.1 CRITERIA 122 6.2 IMPLEMENTATION VARIATIONS 122 6.3 TOWARDS AN ABSTRACT VIEW OF OBJECTS 126 6.4 FORMALIZING THE SPECIFICATION 129 6.5 FROM ABSTRACT DATA TYPES TO CLASSES 142 6.6 BEYOND SOFTWARE 147 6.7 SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS 148 6.8 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 159 6.9 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 160 EXERCISES 161 PART C: OBJECT-ORIENTED TECHNIQUES 163 Chapter 7: The static structure: classes 165 7.1 OBJECTS ARE NOT THE SUBJECT 165 7.2 AVOIDING THE STANDARD CONFUSION 166 7.3 THE ROLE OF CLASSES 169 7.4 A UNIFORM TYPE SYSTEM 171 7.5 A SIMPLE CLASS 172 7.6 BASIC CONVENTIONS 177CONTENTS xix 7.7 THE OBJECT-ORIENTED STYLE OF COMPUTATION 181 7.8 SELECTIVE EXPORTS AND INFORMATION HIDING 191 7.9 PUTTING EVERYTHING TOGETHER 194 7.10 DISCUSSION 203 7.11 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 213 7.12 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 215 EXERCISES 216 Chapter 8: The run-time structure: objects 217 8.1 OBJECTS 218 8.2 OBJECTS AS A MODELING TOOL 228 8.3 MANIPULATING OBJECTS AND REFERENCES 231 8.4 CREATION PROCEDURES 236 8.5 MORE ON REFERENCES 240 8.6 OPERATIONS ON REFERENCES 242 8.7 COMPOSITE OBJECTS AND EXPANDED TYPES 254 8.8 ATTACHMENT: REFERENCE AND VALUE SEMANTICS 261 8.9 DEALING WITH REFERENCES: BENEFITS AND DANGERS 265 8.10 DISCUSSION 270 8.11 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 276 8.12 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 277 EXERCISES 277 Chapter 9: Memory management 279 9.1 WHAT HAPPENS TO OBJECTS 279 9.2 THE CASUAL APPROACH 291 9.3 RECLAIMING MEMORY: THE ISSUES 293 9.4 PROGRAMMER-CONTROLLED DEALLOCATION 294 9.5 THE COMPONENT-LEVEL APPROACH 297 9.6 AUTOMATIC MEMORY MANAGEMENT 301 9.7 REFERENCE COUNTING 302 9.8 GARBAGE COLLECTION 304 9.9 PRACTICAL ISSUES OF GARBAGE COLLECTION 309 9.10 AN ENVIRONMENT WITH MEMORY MANAGEMENT 312 9.11 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 315 9.12 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 315 EXERCISES 316 Chapter 10: Genericity 317 10.1 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL TYPE GENERALIZATION 317 10.2 THE NEED FOR TYPE PARAMETERIZATION 318 10.3 GENERIC CLASSES 320CONTENTS xx 10.4 ARRAYS 325 10.5 THE COST OF GENERICITY 328 10.6 DISCUSSION: NOT DONE YET 329 10.7 KEY CONCEPTS INTRODUCED IN THIS CHAPTER 329 10.8 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 330 EXERCISES 330 Chapter 11: Design by Contract: building reliable software 331 11.1 BASIC RELIABILITY MECHANISMS 332 11.2 ABOUT SOFTWARE CORRECTNESS 333 11.3 EXPRESSING A SPECIFICATION 334 11.4 INTRODUCING ASSERTIONS INTO SOFTWARE TEXTS 337 11.5 PRECONDITIONS AND POSTCONDITIONS 338 11.6 CONTRACTING FOR SOFTWARE RELIABILITY 341 11.7 WORKING WITH ASSERTIONS 348 11.8 CLASS INVARIANTS 363 11.9 WHEN IS A CLASS CORRECT? 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